Peter Madit Makuei

Background: Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) represent among the most epidemiologically significant arthropod disease vectors globally, responsible for transmission of diverse bacterial, viral, and parasitic pathogens affecting both human and animal health. Climate-driven alterations in tick distribution and phenology, combined with anthropogenic landscape modifications, have substantially expanded the geographic range and burden of tick-borne diseases across multiple continents. Mechanisms and drivers: This review examines the complex biological and ecological factors determining tick distribution and disease transmission, including environmental temperature and humidity regimes, wildlife and livestock host availability, and anthropogenic activities facilitating tick dispersal. The role of climate change in expanding tick habitat suitability and accelerating parasite development rates is critically evaluated, with particular attention to expanding Ixodes ricinus populations in northern Europe and comparable ecological range expansions in other temperate regions. Prevention and control: Sustainable reduction of tick-borne disease burden requires integrated approaches combining individual protective measures, environmental management, vector control, livestock immunisation, and disease surveillance. Evidence-based recommendations for personal protection, residential tick management, and animal health interventions are presented with emphasis on implementation feasibility in both developed and resource-limited settings. Conclusions: Addressing the expanding threat of tick-borne diseases requires coordinated international efforts integrating public health, veterinary science, and environmental stewardship within a "One Health" framework that recognises the fundamental interconnectedness of human, animal, and ecosystem health. Keywords: ticks, Ixodes, vector-borne diseases, Lyme disease, climate change, disease surveillance, integrated pest management, One Health

Background: East Coast fever (ECF), caused by the protozoan parasite Theileria parva and transmitted by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks, remains a primary constraint on cattle productivity across sub-Saharan Africa. The disease results in mortality rates exceeding 90% in susceptible populations, with substantial economic implications for pastoral and agropastoral communities. Methods and current approaches: This review examines vaccine development strategies including live attenuated vaccines (infection-and-treatment method), subunit and recombinant vaccines, anti-tick immunization approaches, and emerging biotechnologies such as mRNA-based platforms and computational vaccinomics. Published literature through 2024 was systematically evaluated to assess efficacy, safety, and implementation barriers. Results: The infection-and-treatment method remains the benchmark vaccine, providing durable immunity comparable to natural infection. However, subunit vaccines targeting the p67 surface antigen show promise, particularly when combined with advanced adjuvants and delivery systems. Anti-tick vaccines and integrated multi-modal approaches demonstrate synergistic benefits that may enhance epidemiological control. Conclusions: Sustainable ECF control will require an integrated vaccination strategy combining conventional approaches with novel biotechnologies. Future vaccine development should prioritise accessible and affordable formulations for smallholder farmers while addressing antigenic diversity and logistical constraints. Keywords: East Coast fever, Theileria parva, vaccine development, immunisation strategies, tick-borne diseases, livestock health, sub-Saharan Africa